ahmad shah qajar cause of death{ keyword }

The hopes for the constitutional rule were not realized, however. /** * Error Protection API: WP_Paused_Extensions_Storage class * * @package * @since 5.2.0 */ /** * Core class used for storing paused extensions. A powerful reactionary and sworn enemy of the new order, Kmrn Mrz worked to poison the young shahs mind against his distinguished state counselors and to make him believe that they had betrayed his father. akm-al-molk was charged with purging the court of undesirable elements and did so with considerable vigor and integrity, dismissing numerous unworthy tutors and officials and corrupt courtiers. [50] This period marked the first major economic and military encroachments on Iranian interests during the colonial era. The Qajar armies at that time were mostly composed of Turkoman warriors and Georgian slaves. From Paris Amad Shah sought to turn this agitation to his own advantage. Matters came to a head when Morgan Shuster, a United States administrator hired as treasurer-general by the Persian government to reform its finances, sought to collect taxes from powerful officials who were Russian protgs and to send members of the treasury gendarmerie, a tax department police force, into the Russian zone. After Teimuraz II died in 1762, Erekle II assumed control over Kartli, and united the two kingdoms in a personal union as the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti, becoming the first Georgian ruler to preside over a politically unified eastern Georgia in three centuries. State Hermitage Museum. Can you list the top facts and stats about Ahmad Shah Qajar? From exile, Ahmad Shah issued the following declaration indicating his displeasure . [20][23] Qajar Iran's territorial integrity was further weakened during the Persian campaign of World War I and the invasion by the Ottoman Empire. Later, the formal termination of the Qajar Dynasty by the Majles, turned Ahmad Shah's 1923 European tour into exile. The young princes parents, about to go into exile abroad, were reluctant to part with him; but a constitutional crisis was avoided when they were persuaded to surrender the boy-king to a delegation of constitutionalists (E. G. Browne, The Persian Revolution of 1905-1909, Cambridge, 1910, p. 326). In return, Re Khan agreed to facilitate the shahs immediate departure for Europe. [83] Mozaffar-e-din Shah was a moderate, but relatively ineffective ruler. Solidly Persian-speaking territories of Iran were lost, with all its inhabitants in it. With the Romanovs shifting to a policy of 'informal support' for the weakened Qajar dynasty continuing to place pressure with advances in the largely nomadic Turkestan, a crucial frontier territory of the Qajars this Russian domination of Persia continued for nearly a century. 1742-1797) was the founder of the Qajar dynasty that ruled Persia until 1924. Jun 2022 24. Amad Shah's position was considerably affected when on 21 February 1921exactly 40 days before the British troops were to begin their evacuation of Irana division of the Persian Cossack brigade under the command of Re Khan marched from Qazvn to Tehran and occupied the capital. 1 negative : glass ; 5 x 7 in. With the death of Mohammad Shah in 1848, Mirza Taqi was largely responsible for ensuring the crown prince's succession to the throne. Michael P. Croissant, "The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: causes and implications", Praeger/Greenwood,1998 - Page 67: . . . [100], The British formed the South Persia Rifles in 1916, which was initially separate from the Persian army until 1921. Uncles, aunts, cousins, had unhampered access to Amad Shah. "Ardabil Becomes a Province: Center-Periphery Relations in Iran", H. E. Chehabi, K. M. Rhrborn. Oktober 1925. The death of Mohammad- Ali Shah Qajar (b. In the last few decades of the 18th century, Georgia had become a more important element in Russo-Iranian relations than some provinces in northern mainland Persia, such as Mazandaran or even Gilan. The Qajar army suffered a major military defeat in the war, and under the terms of the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813, Iran was forced to cede most of its Caucasian territories comprising modern-day Georgia, Dagestan, and most of Azerbaijan. But they failed to realize the goal of turning the shah into a model king, for they were unable to protect him from undesirable influences within the court and his immediate family. Franz Roubaud. Others simply voluntarily refused to live under Christian Russian rule, and thus disembarked for Turkey or Iran. The assemblys resolutions stipulated that no member of the Qajar family could ever accede to the throne. The repudiation by the U.S. Congress of the Versailles treaty, after it had been signed by President Wilson, also may have created a precedent on which Iran seized (H. Nicolson, Curzon: The Last Phase, 1919-1925, Boston, 1934, pp. [49] Under Fath Ali Shah (r. 17971834), the Qajars set out to fight against the invading Russian Empire, who were keen to take the Iranian territories in the region. Home; Categories. By 1920, the government had virtually lost all power outside the capital and Ahmad Shah had lost control of the situation. Storming of Lankaran, 13 January 1813. During these eventful years, Amad Shah played only a small part in the internal politics of his country, on the whole doing what his counselors (some pro-German, some pro-British, some pro-Russian) advised him to do. He died four years later at the age of 32. [citation needed]. Ahmad Shah Qajar married five times. [84] Resistance to the shah, however, coalesced in Tabriz, Isfahan, Rasht, and elsewhere. These reforms antagonized various notables who had been excluded from the government. at Neuilly-sur-Seine, outside Paris, France, and was buried in his family crypt in Karbala, Iraq. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period, Encyclopedia Iranica. (court literature/language, administrative, cultural, official), Reconquest of Georgia and the rest of the Caucasus, Wars with Russia and irrevocable loss of territories. (Optional) Enter email address if you would like feedback about your tag. [citation needed] However, with the advent of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent withdrawal of most of the Russian troops, the Ottomans gained the upper hand in Iran, occupying significant portions of the country until the end of the war. The agreement was deeply resented in France and openly denounced by the American minister in Tehran, who promised the Iranian nationalists his countrys full support in resisting this colonial pact (M. T. Bahr, Tr-emotaar-e azb-e ss, vol. On 31 October 1925, the Majlis approved a bill deposing the Qajars and entrusting the provisional government to Re Khan. Some Swedish officers left, while others sided with the Germans and Ottomans in their intervention in Persia. m7 bayonet rubber; navien recirculation timer setting; why did heaven's gate kill themselves; electric scooter hire surfers paradise; when was the epic of gilgamesh discovered; 1923-d.1977), Soltan Ahmad Shah's son from a non-Qajar wife, married a woman of Bulgarian descent and had three children: Princess Sheylah, Princess Eylah and . Media in category "Ahmad Shah Qajar" The following 51 files are in this category, out of 51 total. [38] Erekle appealed then to his theoretical protector, Empress Catherine II of Russia, asking for at least 3,000 Russian troops,[38] but he was ignored, leaving Georgia to fend off the Persian threat alone. Qajars filled a number of diplomatic missions and governorships in the 1617th centuries for the Safavids. Due to his young age, his uncle, Ali-Reza Khan, took charge of his affairs as Regent. Ahmad Shah Qajar (21/1/1898 - 21/2/1930) was Shah of Iran from July 16, 1909 to October 31, 1925 and the last of the Qajar dynasty. His thoughts and deeds were centered on one single object: to save himself and his fortune before Tehran fell to the Bolsheviks, whose advance on the capital seemed imminent. By this, after the conquest of Tbilisi and being in effective control of eastern Georgia,[16][43] Agha Mohammad was formally crowned Shah in 1796 in the Mughan plain. In November, Re Khan marched to zestn where he secured aals submission. Within 126 years between the demise of the Safavid state and the rise of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, the Qajars had evolved from a shepherd-warrior tribe with strongholds in northern Persia into a Persian dynasty with all the trappings of a Perso-Islamic monarchy. I, Fasc. When Mohammad Shah died in 1848 the succession passed to his son Nasser-e-Din, who proved to be the ablest and most successful of the Qajar sovereigns. The education of the young king thus passed into the hands of men whose sole aim was to make Amad Shah into a genuine constitutional monarch. Mirza Taghi Khan Amir Kabir, was the young prince Nasser-e-Din's advisor and constable. On 18 May 1920, the Soviets landed troops at the port of Anzal (later Bandar Pahlav) and proceeded to occupy the province of Gln, announcing they would remain until British forces were withdrawn. Sepehr, rn dar ang-e bozorg-e 1914-18, Tehran, 1336 ./1957. Foreign advisers became powerbrokers in the court and military. Hoping to head off this movement and encouraged by politicians opposed to Re Khan, in September, 1925, Amad Shah announced in a telegram to Re Khan his intention to sail from Marseilles on October 2 and return to Iran. book a tip slot neath ahmad shah qajar cause of death. Following the 18041814 War, but also per the 18261828 war which ceded the last territories, large migrations, so-called Caucasian Muhajirs, set off to migrate to mainland Iran. Mirza Nasir-ud-Din Muammad Shah (born Roshan Akhtar; [1] 7 August 1702 - 26 April 1748) [1] was the 13th Mughal emperor, who reigned from 1719 to 1748. In view of the unhappy record of the Qajar rulers, opinion at the time favored the deposition of the Qajars and the installation of a new dynasty. The Persian army marched back laden with spoil and carrying off many thousands of captives.[39][41][42]. I: Enqer-e salanat-e Qrya, Tehran, 1323 ./1944, p. 39). But it was clear to Norman that the shah was motivated by fear, and that he intended to wait out the crisis abroad, returning to Iran if it passed, but remaining in Europe if the Bolsheviks took over (Documents XIII, p. 678). When Nasser ed-Din succeeded to the throne, Amir Nezam was awarded the position of the prime minister and the title of Amir Kabir, the Great Ruler. Mohammad was born on June 21 1872. Bridges of Kentucky > Blog > Uncategorized > ahmad shah qajar cause of death. The Ottomans, Iran's neighboring rival, recognized the latter's rights over Kartli and Kakheti for the first time in four centuries. [90] Numerous clashes would take place there between the Russians, who were further aided by the Assyrians under Agha Petros as well as Armenian volunteer units and battalions, and the Ottomans on the other side. Following the disintegration of the afavid empire in 1722, Qjr tribal chieftains became prominent in Iranian affairs. Marching on Tehran, the Soviets extracted ever more humiliating concessions from the Persian government whose ministers Ahmad Shah was often unable to control. Agha Mohammad established his capital at Tehran, a town near the ruins of the ancient city of Rayy. [20][80] Russia and Britain had competing investments in the industrialisation of Iran including roads and telegraph lines,[81] as a way to profit and extend their influence. The Qajar were a Turkmen tribe who first settled during the Mongol period in the vicinity of Armenia and were among the seven Qezelb tribes that supported the Safavids. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. He had four children, each by a different wife. Thus, although Amad Shahs coronation on 21 July 1914 was marked by national jubilation, his popularity rapidly declined. Mohammad Hasan Khan was killed on the orders of Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty. However, he did not do so; and Re Khan was now too powerful and the shah too discredited for the movement to depose the Qajars to be reversed. what is the recommended ratio for lifeguard to swimmer [104], At the end of the Qajar dynasty in 1925, Reza Shah's Pahlavi army would include members of the gendarmerie, Cossacks, and former members of the South Persia Rifles.[100]. With the conclusion of the Akhal Treaty on 21 September 1881, Iran ceased any claim to all parts of Turkestan and Transoxiana, setting the Atrek River as the new boundary with Imperial Russia. The shah signed the constitution on 30 December 1906, but refusing to forfeit all of his power to the Majles, attached a caveat that made his signature on all laws required for their enactment. safe word ideas for shifting; theatre designer beatrice minns. [23][86], British and Russian officials coordinated as the Russian army, still present in Persia, invaded the capital again and suspended the parliament. One of the greatest achievements of Amir Kabir was the building of Dar ol Fonoon in 1851, the first modern university in Persia and the Middle East. Princess Homayoundokht resides in France. Erekle had managed to mobilize some 5,000 troops, including some 2,000 from neighboring Imereti under its King Solomon II. His son and successor, Ahmad Shah Qajar was the last sovereign of the Qajar dynasty. On the other hand, the Red Army along with rebels and warlords ruled much of the countryside. Ganja. He was formally deposed on 31 October 1925, when Reza Khan was proclaimed Shah by the Majlis, as Reza Shah Pahlavi. Submitted tags will be reviewed by site administrator before it is posted online.If you enter several tags, separate with commas. Scroll. Furthermore, the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay included the official rights for the Russian Empire to encourage settling of Armenians from Iran in the newly conquered Russian territories. Amir Kabir issued an edict banning ornate and excessively formal writing in government documents; the beginning of a modern Persian prose style dates from this time. [66] This brigade would prove decisive in the following decades to come in Qajar history. Due to his young age, his uncle, Ali-Reza Khan, took charge of his affairs as Regent. fut Shah d'Iran du 16 juillet 1909 au 31 octobre 1925. This influence was especially pronounced because the Persian monarchy's legitimacy was predicated on an image of military prowess, first Turkic and then European-influenced. Photograph shows Ahmad Shah Qajar (1898-1930), who was Shah of Iran from 1909 to 1925 and was the last leader of the Qajar . If implemented, the treaty would have put an end to Irans political independence and for all practical purposes made England Irans guardian and protector. In 1923, Ahmad Shah left Iran for Europe for health reasons. The Moderates and Democrats often clashed, particularly when it came to minority rights and secularism. In 1923, Ahmad Shah went into exile in Europe. Modern scholars of character and integrity, such as ok-al-molk For, ok-al-dawla affr and Kaml-al-molk were named to replace the departing teaching staff. In February 1921, Reza Khan, commander of the Persian Cossack Brigade, staged a coup d'tat, becoming the effective ruler of Iran. Four years after the 1921 Persian coup d'tat, Reza Shah took power in 1925 and formed the Imperial State of Persia. They abolished class representation and created five new seats in the Majlis for minorities: two seats for Armenians, and one seat each for Jews, Zoroastrians, and Assyrians. [3] He attempted to fix the damage done by his father by appointing the best ministers he could find. On 16 July 1909, Mohammad Ali Shah was overthrown by rebels seeking to restore the 1906 Constitution. IN IRAN Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green Fulfillment. The British Ambassador, George Head Barclay reported disapproval of this "reign of terror", though would soon pressure Persian ministers to officialize the Anglo-Russian partition of Iran. This terminated the Qajar dynasty. ahmad shah qajar cause of death +1 (760) 205-9936. It ended even more disastrously for Qajar Iran with temporary occupation of Tabriz and the signing of the Treaty of Turkmenchay in 1828, acknowledging Russian sovereignty over the entire South Caucasus and Dagestan, as well as therefore the ceding of what is nowadays Armenia and the remaining part of Republic of Azerbaijan;[18] the new border between neighboring Russia and Iran were set at the Aras River. In July 1909, constitutional forces marched from Rasht to Tehran led by Mohammad Vali Khan Sepahsalar Khalatbari Tonekaboni, deposed the Shah, and re-established the constitution. The upheavals of the Constitutional Revolution and civil war had undermined stability and trade. [74], Fath Ali Shah's reign saw increased diplomatic contacts with the West and the beginning of intense European diplomatic rivalries over Iran. The journey was undertaken ostensibly for the purpose of medical treatment abroad, although the shah, from the safety of the south of France, subsequently sought to engineer an armed rebellion against Re Khan with the help of his trusted ally, Shaikh aal of zestn. These developments made a deep impression on the Iranian olam , who feared that the proclamation of a republic in Iran would have similar consequences for the role of Islam and the religious establishment in their country (Survey of International Affairs 3, 1925, p. 537). In 1797, Agha Mohammad Khan was assassinated in Shusha, the capital of Karabakh Khanate, and was succeeded by his nephew, Fath-Ali Shah Qajar. Ahmad Shah was formally crowned on 21 July 1914, upon reaching his majority. [62][65] Franz Roubaud. Upon learning of the fall of Tbilisi General Gudovich put the blame on the Georgians themselves. The Russians had always interpreted this article to imply that while individual rulers could be removed from the throne, the continuity of the dynasty itself must not be affected. In a few hours, the Iranian king Agha Mohammad Khan was in full control of the Georgian capital. By 1794 he had eliminated all his rivals, including Lof Al Khn, the last of the Zand dynasty, and had reasserted . Agha Mohammad Shah was later assassinated while preparing a second expedition against Georgia in 1797 in Shusha. [69] After centuries of constant warfare on the Armenian Plateau, many Armenians chose to emigrate and settle elsewhere. The account of these events lies outside the scope of this article, but Amad Shahs behavior throughout this crisis was lamentable. The Anglo-Persian Agreement itself was finally abrogated in 1921, when successive Iranian cabinets found themselves unable to submit it to Parliament for approval. Amad Shah was only twelve years of age when he succeeded his father. Ahmad Shah Qajar (Persian: ; 21 January 1898 - 21 February 1930) was Shah of Persia (Iran) from 16 July 1909 to 15 December 1925, and the last ruling member of the Qajar dynasty.Ahmad Shah was born in Tabriz on 21 January 1898 and ascended to the throne at the age of 12 after the removal of his father . When Aod-al-molk died on 22 September 1910, he was replaced as regent by Abul-Qsem Ner-al-molk, an Oxonian who counted among his contemporaries at Oxford Lord Curzon and Sir Edward Grey, both destined to become British foreign secretaries in the next decade. Meanwhile, by 1881, Russia had completed its conquest of present-day Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, bringing Russia's frontier to Persia's northeastern borders and severing historic Persian ties to the cities of Bukhara, Merv and Samarqand. [46][47] In 1804, the Russians invaded and sacked the Iranian town of Ganja, massacring and expelling thousands of its inhabitants,[48] thereby beginning the Russo-Persian War of 18041813. [28] Among these Turkic tribes, however, Turkmens of Iran played the most prominent role in bringing Qajars to power. [62], Through the Battle of Ganja of 1804 during the Russo-Persian War (18041813), many thousands of Ayrums and Qarapapaqs were settled in Tabriz. Nasser ed-Din Shah tried to exploit the mutual distrust between Great Britain and Russia to preserve Persia's independence, but foreign interference and territorial encroachment increased under his rule. in Svante Cornell, "Small nations and great powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus", Richmond: Curzon Press, 2001, p. 37. He was Grand Master of the following orders: French Third Republic: Grand Cross of the. On July 16, 1909, Mohammad Ali Shah was overthrown by rebels seeking to restore the 1906 Constitution . The first four years of Amad Shahs direct reign coincided with World War I and the occupation of Iran by various belligerent troops. The great number of them also settled in Astarabad (present-day Gorgan, Iran) near the south-eastern corner of the Caspian Sea,[10] and it would be this branch of Qajars that would rise to power. In November, 1915, urged by the Germans, a large number of Majlis deputies and elder statesmen quit the capital and transferred their base of operations first to Qom and eventually to Kermnh, where they established a rival, nationalist government. Britain also sent sepoys to reinforce the Brigade. [95], Iran was divided into five large provinces and a large number of smaller ones at the beginning of Fath Ali Shah's reign, about 20 provinces in 1847, 39 in 1886, but 18 in 1906. [10] In his quest for power, he razed cities, massacred entire populations, and blinded some 20,000 men in the city of Kerman because the local populace had chosen to defend the city against his siege.[10]. what is the recommended ratio for lifeguard to swimmer [63] As the Cambridge History of Iran states; "The steady encroachment of Russian troops along the frontier in the Caucasus, General Yermolov's brutal punitive expeditions and misgovernment, drove large numbers of Muslims, and even some Georgian Christians, into exile in Iran."[64]. Reza Khan was subsequently proclaimed monarch as Reza Shah Pahlavi, reigning from 1925 to 1941. In October 1851, the shah dismissed him and exiled him to Kashan, where he was murdered on the shah's orders. (XIX . The action by Re Khan and his colleagues came at a moment of national crisis and a general belief that upon the withdrawal of British and Soviet forces local communist forces in Gln would march on Tehran and the shahs government would collapse. He had 12 grandchildren, who respectively carry the last names Albertini, Faroughy, Panahi and Qajar (also spelled Kadjar). Thus ended the reign of Amad Shah and the 130-year-old Qajar dynasty. One of Khan's first actions was to rescind the unpopular Anglo-Persian Agreement. [17], On 12 September 1801, four years after Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar's death, the Russians capitalized on the moment, and annexed Kartli-Kakheti (eastern Georgia). By June 1914, Russia established near-total control over its northern zone, while Britain had established influence over Baluch and Bakhtiari autonomous tribal leaders in the southeastern zone. Through his marriage to Ezzat od-Doleh, Amir Kabir had been the brother-in-law of the shah. D. Wright, The English Amongst the Persians, London, 1977, pp. Due to his young age, his uncle, Ali Reza Khan Azod al-Molk, governed as regent. Georgia was a province of Iran the same way Khorasan was. Out of the greater part of the territory, six separate nations would be formed through the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, namely Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and three generally unrecognized republics Abkhazia, Artsakh and South Ossetia claimed by Georgia. Upon reaching his majority Ahmad Shah was formally crowned on 21 July 1914. Online Edition, "The Iranian Armed Forces in Politics, Revolution and War: Part One", A. S. Griboyedov. The remainder of the Gendarmerie was named amniya after a patrol unit that existed in the early Qajar dynasty. He is a weak ruler who is plagued with illness and was installed to the throne since he was a minor. The coup of 1921 rendered Ahmad Shah politically weaker and less relevant. Jahrhundert, Berlin, 1966, p. 4. Several trade concessions by the Persian government put economic affairs largely under British control. [44] To restore Russian prestige, Catherine II declared war on Persia, upon the proposal of Gudovich,[44] and sent an army under Valerian Zubov to the Qajar possessions on April of that year, but the new Tsar Paul I, who succeeded Catherine in November, shortly recalled it. The instruments of central administration were overhauled, and Amir Kabir assumed responsibility for all areas of the bureaucracy. He died five days later. Every future Shah of Iran would also die in exile. In addition, he signed the Russo-Persian Treaty of Friendship. [97], The Qajar military was one of the dynasty's largest conventional sources of legitimacy, albeit was increasingly influenced by foreign powers over the course of the dynasty. Not much is known about Ahmad's early life before his succession to the throne. Other rebellions were crushed, considerably adding to Re Khans standing. The Tsar ordered the troops in Tabriz "to act harshly and quickly", while purges were ordered, leading to many executions of prominent revolutionaries. He was buried at the Shrine of Imam Husain, Karbala, Iraq. His son, Fath Ali Khan (born c. 16851693) was a renowned military commander during the rule of the Safavid shahs Sultan Husayn and Tahmasp II. [98], Russia established the Persian Cossack Brigade in 1879, a force which was led by Russian officers and served as a vehicle for Russian influence in Iran. The Qajars were resettled by Shah Abbas I throughout Iran. By the late 19th century, many Persians believed that their rulers were beholden to foreign interests. The Qajars were a Turkmen tribe that held ancestral lands in present-day Azerbaijan, which then was part of Iran.In 1779, following the death of Mohammad Karim Khan Zand, the Zand Dynasty ruler of southern Iran, Agha Mohammad Khan, a leader of the Qajar tribe, set out to reunify Iran. Er war der letzte Herrscher der Kadscharen . Genealogy profile for Soltan Ahmad Shah Qajar, Shahanshah Soltan Ahmad Shah Qajar, Shahanshah (1898 - 1930) - Genealogy Genealogy for Soltan Ahmad Shah Qajar, Shahanshah (1898 - 1930) family tree on Geni, with over 240 million profiles of ancestors and living relatives. The Swedish-influenced police had some success in building up Persian police in centralizing the country. Hence Merv, Sarakhs, Eshgh Abad, and the surrounding areas were transferred to Russian control under the command of General Alexander Komarov in 1884.[61]. [89], At the beginning of the war, the Ottomans invaded Iranian Azerbaijan. Ahmad Shah Qajar was Shah of Persia from 16 July 1909 to 15 December 1925, and the last ruling member of the Qajar dynasty. In addition, the ex-shah, with Russian support, attempted to regain his throne, landing troops in July 1910. He founded the first modern hospital in Iran.[75]. This article is available in print.Vol. [24][10][11][12] Qajars first settled during the Mongol period in the vicinity of Armenia and were among the seven Qizilbash tribes that supported the Safavids. ahmad shah qajar cause of death old restaurants in lawrence, ma Contribute to chinapedia/wikipedia.en development by creating an account on GitHub. This greatly enhanced Re Khans standing and he began to encourage a movement for the transfer of the crown from Amad Shah to himself. [40], In August 1795, Agha Mohammad Khan crossed the Aras River, and after a turn of events by which he gathered more support from his subordinate khans of Erivan and Ganja, and having re-secured the territories up to including parts of Dagestan in the north and up to the westernmost border of modern-day Armenia in the west, he sent Erekle the last ultimatum, which he also declined, but, sent couriers to St.Petersburg. [67][68] Until the mid-fourteenth century, Armenians had constituted a majority in Eastern Armenia. However, the Turkish Grand National Assembly had on March 3 passed three laws abolishing the caliphate, suppressing the ministry of religious affairs and the system of awqf (religious endowments) and placing all religious schools and seminaries under the national ministry of education.

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